Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Amaçları
Yayınlar
- MakaleYalnız künye2026Scopus SJRQ2Synthesis of Aminothiophene derivative complexes and electrochemical sensor application for carbofuran pesticide
Taş, Abdurrahim; İpek, Yeliz; Adiguzel, Ragip
In this study, a ligand named 2-amino-6-ethyl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydrothieno[2,3-c]pyridine-3‑carbonitrile (ATL), which is an aminothiophene ligand, was synthesized. ATL was used to synthesize ATL-Co(II), ATL-Cu(II), and ATL-Zn(II) complexes. The chemical structures of the complexes were elucidated by spectroscopic methods such as FT-IR, UV–visible, and LC-MS analysis, as well as TG-DTA analysis, magnetic susceptibility measurements, and elemental analysis. Finally, the electrochemical characterization of ATL and the electrochemical sensor application of its complexes was performed. In electrochemical sensor studies, a carbofuran pesticide sensor application was investigated. ATL exhibited an irreversible oxidation peak around 1.0 V. It was observed that ATL-Co(II), ATL-Cu(II), and ATL-Zn(II) complexes behaved similarly to ATL and exhibited an irreversible oxidation peak at the same potential. Carbofuran pesticide was added to the sensor medium using the standard addition method. The changes in peak current with different carbofuran concentrations constituted the data of the amperometric sensor application, and the changes in the peak potential constituted the data of the voltammetric sensor application. Linear working ranges, LOD, and LOQ values were calculated for ATL, ATL-Co(II), ATL-Cu(II), and ATL-Zn(II) complexes, separately. The widest operating range as a voltammetric sensor was achieved with the ATL: 20 μmol L−1 to 350 μmol L−1. The lowest LOD and LOQ values were achieved with the ATL-Co(II) complex for voltammetric detection as 8.8 μmol L−1 and 29.2 μmol L−1, respectively. The lowest LOD and LOQ values were achieved with the ATL-Co(II) complex as 1.6 μmol L−1 and 5.2 μmol L−1 with the amperometric technique, respectively.
- MakaleAçık Erişim2025Scopus SJRQ2Synthesis and characterization of novel bis(thiosemicarbazone) complexes and investigation of their acetylcholinesterase and glutathione S-transferase activities with in silico and in vitro studies
Donmez, Melike; Sekerci, Memet; Adiguzel, Ragip; Oğuz, Ercan; Türkan, Fikret; Yildiko, Umit; Colak, Naki
In this study, firstly, bis(thiosemicarbazone) ligand [L: 2,2′-(2-(2-(4-methoxyphenyl)hydrazineylidene)cyclohexane-1,3-diylidene)bis(hydrazine-1-carbothioamide)] was synthesized by the condensation reaction of thiosemicarbazide and ketone compound (2-(2-(4-methoxyphenyl)hydrazone)cyclohexane-1,3-dione). The metal complexes were synthesized by the reaction of obtained ligand (L) with CuCl2·2H2O, NiCl2·6H2O, CoCl2·6H2O, and MnCl2·4H2O salts. The structures of synthesized ligand and their complexes were characterized using elemental analysis, IR, UV–Vis, 1H-NMR spectra, 13C-NMR spectra, magnetic susceptibility, mass spectra (LC–MS), thermogravimetry analysis-differential thermal analysis (TGA-DTA), and differential scanning calorimetry techniques. According to the results of the analysis, square plane geometry was suggested for Cu and Co complexes. However, the structures of Ni and Mn complexes were in agreement with octahedral geometry. Molecular docking analysis and pharmacological potential of the compound were evaluated to determine the inhibitory potential against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and Glutathione-S-transferases (GST) enzymes. The compound exhibited strong binding/docking indices of − 5.708 and − 5.928 kcal/mol for the respective receptors. In addition, L–Ni(II) complex was found to be the most effective inhibitor for AChE enzyme with a Ki value of 0.519. However, with a Ki value of 1.119, L–Cu(II) complex was also found to be an effective inhibitor for the GST enzyme.
AtıfScopus21OpenAlex19
İncele - MakaleAçık Erişim2023Scopus SJRQ2Preparation of composite supported phase change materials from inorganic-based microcapsules of cetyl alcohol and investigation of their phase change material (PCM) behaviors
Karabulut, Serap; Sekerci, Memet; Adiguzel, Ragip; Karagoz Genc, Zuhal
In this study, cetyl alcohol (CA) (CH3(CH2)15OH), which is a fatty alcohol, was microencapsulated by the coacervation method with the titanium-n-butoxide (TNBO). Firstly, at the beginning of the experimental process by thermal and structural analyses, the CA was determined as having a phase change material (PCM) property, then it was microencapsulated with TNBO. In the second step of the study, barite, boron nitride, marble powder, and fly ash were separately added to prepare a series of microencapsulated with TNBO. Lastly, structural and thermal properties of both microencapsulated PCM and composite supported microencapsulated PCMs (CSM-PCMs) have been analyzed by FTIR, DSC, TGA, and SEM devices. Surprisingly, the SEM image of CA turned from torn fiber structure into a particulate structure in the form of groundnut in the SEM images of the microencapsulated CA-Ti taken at different magnifications. After the thermal cycling test, the same analyses have been made before and after thermal cycling to compare the structural and thermal properties. It has been investigated whether to use as insulation material. It is concluded that the most suitable samples, compared with structural and thermal properties, are barite (B) and boron nitride (BN) with microencapsulated samples. The obtained results are shown that CATi-B and CATi-BN are CSM-PCMs and could be suggested in terms of thermal energy storage in buildings as promising PCMs.
AtıfScopus3WoS3OpenAlex3İncele - MakaleAçık Erişim2022Scopus SJRQ2Synthesis and Characterization of Azo Dye Complexes as Potential Inhibitors of Acetylcholinesterase, Butyrylcholinesterase, and Glutathione S-Transferase
Buldurun, Kenan; Aras, Abdülmelik; Turan, Nevin; Turkan, Fikret; Adiguzel, Ragip; Bursal, Ercan
In this study, several metal(II) complexes (Fe, Co, Zn, and Ru) of an azo dye ligand (ADL) that, apart from pyrazole ring (PR), include anisole having (−OCH3) group at the m-substitue of the phenyl (L: (E)-4-((3-methoxyphenyl)diazenyl)-3-methyl-1H-pyrazol-5-amine) were prepared, characterized, and the biological activity studies were carried out. The structures of complexes were identified by elemental analysis, FTIR, UV-vis, mass spectra (Fe(II) and Co(II)), 1H-13C NMR spectra, and TGA-DTA. The azo ligand and its metal complexes were evaluated for their biological properties according to the enzyme inhibitory activities. The lowest Ki values of Co(II) complex against all three GST (19.48±2.17 μM), AChE (22.14±3.74 μM), and BChE (26.39±3.19 μM) enzymes were verified as the most effective enzyme inhibition. The biological activity results suggest that the obtained complexes have good potentials to be used in further analyses to explore new pharmaceutical agents.
AtıfScopus20WoS19OpenAlex18İncele - MakaleYalnız künye2021Scopus SJRQ2Synthesis and in silico studies of Novel Ru(II) complexes of Schiff base derivatives of 3-[(4-amino-5-thioxo-1,2,4-triazole-3-yl)methyl]-2(3H)-benzoxazolone compounds as potent Glutathione S-transferase and Cholinesterases Inhibitor
Adiguzel, Ragip; Türkan, Fikret; Yildiko, Ümit; Aras, Abdülmelik; Evren, Enes; Onkol, Tijen
Novel Ru(II) complexes of Shiff base derivatives of 3-[(4-amino-5-thioxo-1,2,4-triazole-3-yl)methyl]-2(3H)-benzoxazolone were synthesized. The ligands (1a-e) were confirmed by IR, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR spectra (only 1b and 1c). Structures of the synthesized Ru(II) complexes (2a-e) were illuminated by elemental analysis, IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and mass spectra. As the biological studies, the inhibitory potency of the ligands and the novel synthesized complexes were evaluated against the glutathione S-transferase (GST), acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) enzymes in vitro conditions. Ki values in the range of 26.87-47.63 µM for AChE, 23.51-42.81 µM for BChE, and 33.14-51.73 µM for GST, respectively. The free binding energy of most active inhibitors against AChE, BChE, and GST enzymes were detected as -10.183 kcal/mol, -9.111 kcal/mol, and -6.097 kcal/mol, respectively. All compounds docked were observed to bind in the active site of the enzymes with similar binding orientation and binding interactions with the surrounding amino acids.
AtıfScopus31OpenAlex34İncele - MakaleAçık Erişim2021Scopus SJRQ2Investigation of spectroscopic, thermal, and biological properties of FeII, CoII, ZnII, and RuII complexes derived from azo dye ligand
Turan, Nevin; Buldurun, Kenan; Adiguzel, Ragip; Aras, Abdülmelik; Turkan, Fikret; Bursal, Ercan
In this study, the novel azo dye FeII, CoII, ZnII, and RuII complexes with an azo dye ligand (L: (E)-4-((4-methoxyphenyl)diazenyl)-3-methyl-1H-pyrazol-5-amine) were synthesized. The structures of the complexes were characterized by FT-IR, elemental analysis, UV-Vis, mass spectra (FeII and CoII), NMR spectra (only diamagnetic ZnII and RuII), thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis (TGA-DTA). All of the newly synthesized compounds were tested for their biochemical properties, including enzyme inhibitory and antioxidant activities. According to the in vitro ABTS, DPPH, CUPRAC, and FRAP antioxidant methods, the ligand and its metal complexes showed close antioxidant activities to the standards (BHA, BHT, ascorbic acid, and α-tocopherol). Enzyme inhibitions of the metal complexes were investigated against glutathione S-transferase (GST), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) enzymes. The best inhibition values (Ki) were observed for Ru(II) complex against GST (14.36 ± 2.16 µM), AChE (16.86 ± 2.74 µM), and BChE (14.12 ± 2.04 µM).
AtıfScopus45WoS45OpenAlex45İncele - MakaleAçık Erişim2020A Computational Study on Some Pyridine-Substituted-Bis-1,2,4-Triazole Derivatives and Investigation of Their Catalytic Activities
Çetın, Ahmet; Adiguzel, Ragip; Aktan, Ebru; Evren, Enes
In this work were specified catalytic activity of pyridine-substituted-bis-1,2,4-triazole (PBTT) derivative ligands 5,5′-(pyridine-2,5-diyl)bis(4-ethyl-4H-1,2,4-triazole-3-thiol) (L1) and 5,5′-(pyridine-2,5-diyl)bis(4-phenyl-4H-1,2,4-triazole-3-thiol) (L2) in biaryl synthesis in situ-reaction condition. Catalytic activities are determined in terms of conversion percentages to derivatives of biaryl of aryl bromides by GC-MS. The highest catalytic effect for L1 ligand was measured as 61% with 4-bromobenzaldehyde. Apart from catalytic activity studies, some structural properties of related ligands were discussed by computational methods. As a result, the ground state geometries, frontier molecular orbitals (FMOs) and also the maps of molecular electrostatic potential (MEP) of L1 and L2 ligands were obtained using DFT/B3LYP/6-31+G(d) calculations. Additionally, the global reactivity descriptors were reached using the FMOs calculations.
AtıfOpenAlex4TR Dizin2
İncele - MakaleYayıncıda açık erişim2018Scopus SJRQ3Spectral, thermal and antimicrobial properties of novel mixed ligand-metal complexes derived from saccharinate complexes and azo dye ligand
Adiguzel, Ragip; Turan, Nevin; Buldurun, Kenan; Korkoca, Hanifi
Background and Objective: Saccharin and saccharinate (sac) complexes and its anion have critical importance with biological, biochemical and pharmacological properties. The main objective of this study was to synthesize the novel mixed ligand complexes from the complexes [M(Sac)2(H2O)4]·2H2O [M: Mn(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II) and Cd(II)] with a second neutral ligand [L:(mmppa): 5-Methyl-4-(4-methylphenylazo)-2H-pyrazole-3-ylamine]. Methodology: The structures of the complexes were characterized by elemental analysis, magnetic susceptibility, FT-IR, mass and electronic spectral studies and thermal analysis. Antimicrobial (antibacterial and anticandidal) activities of the complexes were tested against Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 51299, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Escherichia coli ATCC 35218, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603 and Candida albicans ATCC 64548. Results: According to the experimental results, it was determined that in Mn(II), Co(II) and Cd(II) complexes, two coordinated H2O molecules are replaced with two neutral ligands, on the other hand, in Ni(II) and Cu(II) complexes, all coordinated H2O molecules are replaced with four neutral ligands. It was established that the second neutral ligand was coordinated to the metal ions via nitrogen atom of-NH2 group in pyrazole ring. In antimicrobial activity, study was determined to occur significant inhibition zones (20-24 mm) against Candida albicans ATCC 64548 strain. Conclusion: As a result, mononuclear and monomeric structure in octahedral geometry including both saccharin and azo dye ligands were synthesized and their characterizations were accomplished. The result of this study shows that novel mixed ligand-saccharinate complexes can be utilized for the development of anticandidal agents.
AtıfScopus11WoS10OpenAlex11İncele - MakaleYalnız künye2015Scopus SJRQ3Investigation of the Optical Properties of the Solutions of the Tetraaquabis(saccharinato)metal(II)dihydrate [Metal: Co(II) and NMI)] Complexes at Different Molarity and Volume of Stock Solutions
Adiguzel, Ragip; Gunduz, Bayram; Turan, Nevin; Topcu, Yildiray
We investigated the optical properties and the transmittance characterizations of the stock solutions of the Co (II) and Ni(II) complexes of Saccharin and determined the molar extinction coefficients at different molarity. The molar extinction coefficients (epsilon) values of the Co(II) and Ni(II) complexes in the first region decrease with increasing molarity, and the e values of the Co(II) and Ni(II) complexes at lower wavelength are higher than that of the values at higher wavelength. The absorption band edge values of the Co(II) complex shift from 3.584 to 3.139 eV with the increasing molarity, while the absorption band edge values of the Ni(II) complex shift from 3.574 to 3.493 eV with the increasing molarity. The plots of refractive index of the Co(II) and Ni(II) complexes consist of two anomalous (abnormal) dispersion regions and one normal dispersion region. The direct energy-gap of the Co(II) complex can be more decreased with molarity. The absorbance, molar extinction coefficients, refractive index values of the Co(II) and Ni(II) complexes decrease, while the average transmittance in the visible region, direct optical band-gap values of the Co(II) and Ni(II) complexes increase with increasing volume of DMF solvent or decreasing volume of the solutions of the Coal) and Ni(II) complexes.
AtıfWoS1İncele - MakaleYayıncıda açık erişim2014Scopus SJRQ3Temporal Changes in Concentrations of Some Trace Elements in Muscle Tissue of Crayfish, Astacus leptodactylus (Eschscholtz, 1823), from Keban Dam Lake
Aksu, Onder; Adiguzel, Ragip; Demir, Veysel; Yildirim, Numan; Danabas, Durali; Seker, Sebahat; Can, Safak Seyhaneyildiz; Ates, Mustafa
Crayfish (Astacus leptodactylus Eschscholtz, 1823) is the native crayfish species in Turkey. It was exported regularly to Western Europe. In this study, bioaccumulation and temporal trends of some trace elements (arsenic: As, cadmium: Cd, copper: Cu, mercury: Hg, lead: Pb, and zinc: Zn) in edible abdomenmuscle of crayfish from Keban Dam Lake (Elazig, Turkey) were investigated for the 2006-2012 period. Sequence of metal concentration levels was Zn > Cu > Hg > Pb > Cd > As in muscle tissues. The highest concentration of Zn (21.69mg kg(-1)) was detected in 2006, while the lowest (4.35mg kg(-1)) in 2009. In general, it was found that the concentrations of trace elements investigated were lower than the maximum permissible limits of the food regulations of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture, and Livestock (MFAL), the Turkish Food Codex and Commission Regulation (EC). If the crayfish selected for the study are recognized as bioindicators of environmental pollution, then it is possible to conclude that the changes in studied trace elements concentrations in the Keban Dam Lake are being steady.
AtıfWoS5OpenAlex8İncele - MakaleAçık Erişim2013Scopus SJRQ2Bioaccumulation, Subacute Toxicity, and Tissue Distribution of Engineered Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles in Goldfish (Carassius auratus)
Ates, Mehmet; Demir, Veysel; Adiguzel, Ragip; Arslan, Zikri
The increased use of nanosized materials is likely to result in the release of these particles into the environment. It is, however, unclear if these materials are harmful to aquatic animals. In this study, the sublethal effects of exposure of low and high concentrations of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) on goldfish (Carassius auratus) were investigated. Accumulation of TiO2 NPs increased from 42.71 to 110.68 ppb in the intestine and from 4.10 to 9.86 ppb in the gills of the goldfish with increasing exposure dose from 10 to 100mg/L TiO2 NPs. No significant accumulation in the muscle and brain of the fish was detected. Malondialdehyde as a biomarker of lipid oxidation was detected in the liver of the goldfish. Moreover, TiO2 NPs exposure inhibited growth of the goldfish. Although there was an increase (8.1%) in the body weights of the goldfish for the control group, in the low and high exposure groups 1.8% increase and 19.7% decrease were measured, respectively. The results of this study contribute to the current understanding of the potential ecotoxicological effects of nanoparticles and highlight the importance of characterization of NPs in understanding their behavior, uptake, and effects in aquatic systems and in fish.
AtıfWoS53OpenAlex80İncele - MakaleYalnız künye2011Scopus SJRQ3Synthesis and Characterization of Ni(II) and Cd(II) Complexes of 4-(4-Nitrophenylazo)-1H-pyrazole-3,5-diamine and 4-(4-Methylphenylazo)-1H-pyrazole-3,5-diamine
Adiguzel, Ragip; Esener, Hasan; Ergin, Zuhal; Aktan, Ebru; Turan, Nevin; Sekerci, Memet
In this study, the diazotized p-nitroaniline and p-methylaniline were coupled with malononitrile. The ring closure reaction of the obtained products with hydrazine monohydrate yielded 4-(4-methylphenylazo)-1H-pyrazole-3,5-diamine (L-1) and 4-(4-nitrophenylazo)-1H-pyrazole-3,5-diamine (L-2). The structure of the ligands has been elucidated by spectroscopic analyses. Then, novel Ni(II) and Cd(II) complexes of the ligands have been synthesized and the structures of these complexes determined by elemental analysis, spectrometric and TGA/DTA methods, molar conductance and magnetic susceptibility measurements. All the complexes were monomeric and diamagnetic. From the elemental analyses and mass spectra data, the complexes were proposed to the formulae [Ni-2(L-1)(2)(OH)(2)]center dot 2Cl center dot 8.5H(2)O, [Cd-2(L-1)(2)(OH)(2)]center dot 2Cl center dot DMF center dot 3H(2)O, [Ni(L-2)(2)]center dot 2Cl center dot 2DMF center dot 7H(2)O and [Cd-2(L-2)(2)(OH)(2)(H2O)(4)]center dot 2Cl center dot 1.5H(2)O. For the Cd(L-2) complex octahedral geometry was proposed, but the Ni(L-1), Ni(L-2) and Cd(L-1) complexes show four coordinated structure. The Ni(L-1), Cd(L-1) and Cd(L-2) complexes were found to be dinuclear. On the other hand the Ni(L-2) complex was found to be mononuclear. All the complexes were found to be (1:2) electrolytes.
AtıfWoS8İncele - MakaleAçık Erişim2011Scopus SJRQ2Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Mn(II), Co(III), Ni(II) and Cd(II) Complexes from 4-(2-nitrophenylazo)-1H-pyrazole-3,5-diamine
Esener, Hasan; Adiguzel, Ragip; Ergin, Zuhal; Aktan, Ebru; Turan, Nevin; Sekerci, Memet
In this study, the diazotized o-nitroaniline was coupled with malononitrile. The ring closure reaction of the obtained product with hydrazine monohydrate yielded 4-(2-nitrophenylazo)-1H-pyrazole-3,5-diamine (L). The structure of L has been elucidated by spectroscopic analyses. Then, novel Mn(II), Co(II), Ni(II) and Cd(II) complexes of L have been synthesized, and the structures of these complexes determined by elemental analysis, spectrometric and TGA/DTA methods, molar conductance and magnetic susceptibility measurements. All complexes were monomeric. Except Mn(II) complex, other complexes were diamagnetic. From the elemental analyses and mass spectra data, the complexes were proposed to the formulas [MnL2(CH3O)H2O]center dot Cl center dot CH3OH, [CoL2(CH3O)(2)]center dot Cl center dot 2.5CH(3)OH, [NiL2(CH3OH)(2)]center dot 6.5CH(3)OH and [Cd2L2(Cl)(2)(CH3O)(2)]center dot CH3OH center dot 1.5H(2)O. For Mn(II) and Co(III) complexes octahedral and for the Ni(II) complex square planar geometry were proposed, but the Cd(II) complex includes five coordinated structure. The Mn(II), Co(II) and Ni(II) complexes were found to be mononuclear and electrolytes. On the other hand Cd(II) complex was found to be dinuclear and non-electrolyte.
AtıfWoS12OpenAlex9İncele - MakaleYalnız künye2011Scopus SJRQ3Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Ni(II), Cu(II) and Cd(II) Complexes of 4-(2-Chlorphenylazo)-1H-pyrazole-3,5-diamine
Adiguzel, Ragip; Esener, Hasan; Ergin, Zuhal; Aktan, Ebru; Sekerci, Memet
In this study, the diazotized o-chloraniline was coupled with malononitrile. The ring closure reaction of the obtained product with hydrazine monohydrate yielded 4-(2-chlorophenylazo)-1H-pyrazole-3,5-diamine (L). The structure of ligand has been elucidated by spectroscopic analyses. Then, novel Ni(II), Cu(II), Cd(II) complexes of ligand have been synthesized and the structures of these complexes determined by elemental analysis, spectrometric and TGA/DTA methods and magnetic susceptibility measurements. All complexes were monomeric and diamagnetic. From the elemental analyses and mass spectra data, the complexes were proposed to the formulae [Ni2L2(Cl)(2)]center dot 2Cl center dot 0.5DMF center dot 0.5H(2)O(2), [Cu3L2(Cl)(4)(OH)(2)(H2O)(2)]center dot 0.5H(2)O and [Cd3L2(Cl)(2)(OH)(2)](Cl)(2)center dot 1.5H(2)O. For the Ni(II) complex square planar and for the Cu(II) complex octahedral geometry were proposed, but the Cd(II) complex includes both four and six coordinated structures. The Cu(II) and the Cd(II) complexes were found to be trinuclear. On the other hand the Ni(II) complex was found to be dinuclear.
AtıfWoS7İncele - MakaleYalnız künye2011Scopus SJRQ3Synthesis and Structural Characterization of Bis(2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazolyl)methane Complexes
Adiguzel, Ragip; Ergin, Zuhal; Sekerci, Memet; Tascioglu, Senay
In this study, some transition metal complexes of the bis(2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazolyl)methane (L) derived from the condensation of malonic acid and thiosemicarbazide, have been synthesized and characterized by IR, H-1-NMR spectra, elemental analyses, magnetic susceptibility and thermogravimetry-differential thermal analysis (TGA-DTA). Coordination numbers of monomeric, Ni(II), Zn(II), and Cd(II) complexes and dimeric Cu(II) complex were found to be four, five, six, and five, respectively. According to the elemental analyses and mass spectra data, the following complex formulas were proposed;[Ni-2(L)(SO4)(2)(H2O)(2)]center dot CH3OH center dot 0.5H(2)O, [Cu(L)(SO4)(H2O)](2)DMF center dot 3H(2)O, [Zn(L)NO3 center dot H2O]center dot NO3 center dot DMF, and [Cd(L)(2)(NO3)H2O]NO3 center dot DMF. Ni(II) and Cu(II) complexes were paramagnetic. Ni(II), Cu(II), and Cd(II) complexes were proposed to be tetrahedral/square planar, square pyramidal, and octahedral structure, respectively. Zn(II) complex is five coordinated. The molar conductance data revealed that Zn((II), and Cd(II) complexes were 1:1 electrolytes(ionic). Ni(II), and Cu(II) complexes were non-electrolytes.
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